Media and Everyday Life by David Gauntlett

Social Media | Adult Learners | Digital Age

The table below from Baird & Fisher (2006) describes Malcom Knowles five learning assumptions of adult learners. Based on these assumptions, we can draw conclusions on how learning (formal or informal) through social media in the digital age can benefit adult learners.

Self-concept	As a person matures, his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.
Experience	As a person matures, she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. Information that has little “conceptual overlap” with what is already known is acquired slowly.
Readiness to learn	As a person matures, his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
Orientation to learning	As a person matures, his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
Motivation to learn	As a person matures, the motivation to learn is internal; protecting one’s self-concept and/or self-esteem are strong motivators to acquire new information.

Social media is a form of media that allows for humans to create relationships and build trust in an online platform (Safko, 2010). Social media sites encourage the idea of produsage (production and usage), community based sharing and personalization (Kiviniem & Kurkela, n.d., McLoughlin, 2008). This means that users can collaboratively produce content and view content made by others. Whole communities can be involved in content production through collaborative efforts, sharing information/knowledge on online social media sites. Social media can be used in both informal and formal settings by both adults and youth (Kiviniem & Kurkela, n.d.). Learning through social media is a social constructivist form of learning and approach (McLoughlin, 2008). Communities of practice are formed on online social media sites when people that have similar interests aggregate. Participants within communities of practice can share their experiences, knowledge and information via online communities. They can be built in a formal setting but many form informally and evolve through social interaction. Virtual communities of practice (VCoP) is the term that describes online communities of practice. VCoP can support both formal and informal learning. Social media in formal educational settings encourages collaboration, communal knowledge construction and cooperation. Social media gives learners an opportunity to manage their learning environment and direct their learning. These communities can also help to connect people regardless of geography. Social media sites are self organized when users sign up for informal purposes. This connects to Knowles assumption that adult learners are self directed. Many of these VCoPs are created based on hobby interests and users gather to find information and experience from likeminded individuals. Safko (2010) identifies 15 different social media categories. We have taken 10 of these categories and briefly summarized them below.

Social Networking

Social networking sites allow people to communicate, share thoughts, ideas and experiences with others. This encourages connections with others, trust and allows individuals to learn from each other.

Publishing

Social media sites allow individuals to be published in a variety of methods. These include but are not limited to: blogs, wikis, text messaging, photo and video sharing.

Photo Sharing

Photo sharing social media websites such as Flickr, Picasa, Smugmug and Photoswarm allow users to upload and share their photos. Users share them with their community online and are thus networked and engaged in conversation.

Video/Audio

Social media sites such as YouTube and Soundcloud allow for music (or videos) to be uploaded that can be shared with the community. Video sharing allows for the use of audio and graphics which can appeal to many learning styles. Through video and audio, we can share a variety of experiences and knowledge with our community. This is also a form of creative expression.

Microblogging

Social media websites such as Twitter and Yammer allow for short spurts of communication and correspondence. Users can type short bits of information onto these sites that can be shared with the respective community.

Livecasting

Livecasting sites such as uStream’n allow for users to broadcast video live.

Virtual Worlds

Virtual worlds such as Second Life can be used to meet online and can be a tool for collaboration or dialogue.

Productivity Applications

Productivity applications such as Google Docs or Dropbox allow for peers to share work, documents and manage events. Users can use these tools to work collaboratively.

Aggregators

Aggregator sites such as iGoogle can help users organize and aggregate all their information on one page. This page can contain nuggets of information from their favourite blogs, web pages, news, photos and videos.

RSS

RSS stands for really simple syndication. RSS feed notifies users of new content on their favourite sites. RSS feed can be aggregated from blogs, webs pages etc.

Androgogy is based in self directed learning and it is important for instructors to know the background and prior experiences of the learners. Adult learners are interested in learning material that is relevant and applicable to their lives, work or hobbies. Vygotsky states that cognitive development reaches full potential when the learner is social interacting and engaged (Baird & Fisher, 2006). Social learning theory emphasizes that the best behaviours related to learning are when learners interact with people and the online environment (Tu, 2000). This is a key component of connecting adult education to learning using social media. Social media sites can be used to guide and mediate learning while the learner has control of their learning. In addition, social learning environments can increase and vary the variety of skills of a community through collaboration. It is important for educators or instructors to ensure that the use of social media must be effectively connected to the course’s learning outcomes and curriculum (Baird & Fisher, 2006). Educators must also be able to train learners within online communities in order for collaborative learning to be effective (Tu, 2000). “Self directed learning communities” can provide learners with a community of engaged individuals, a platform to receive feedback and encouragement as well as an area to collaborate/gather a network of information (Baird & Fisher, 2006). If feedback and timely responses are not provided within the social online environment, students can feel detached and can result in less interaction (Tu, 2000).   

References

Baird, D.E. & Fisher, M. (2006). Neomillennial user experience design strategies: Utilizing social networking media to support “always on” learning styles. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 34(1), 5-32.

Kiviniem, K. & Kurkela, L. (n.d.) The Role of Social Media in Informal and Formal Learning. School of Vocational Teacher Education, School of Engineering, 1-6. 

McLoughlin, C.(2008). Mapping the digital terrain: New Media and social software as catalysts for pedagogical change. Ascilite Melbourne, 641-652.

Safko, L. (2010). The Social Media Bible: Tactics, Tools, and Strategies for Business Success, 2nd Edition. New Jersey: Wiley.

Tu, C. (2000). On-line learning migration: from social learning theory to social presence theory in a CMC environment. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 23, 27-37.

Google | IKEA | 3D Printing

Introduction

It has been eye opening and illuminating to read and discuss organizational culture, climate and design in the past few weeks. I am beginning to connect various components of organizational theory to create a big picture to develop my understanding of organizations in general. In addition, I have been able to look at organizations through a variety of lenses in order to critically analyze their structure, design or culture. In this synthesis paper, I examine Google’s and IKEA’s organizational culture and analyze the implications of 3D printing on organizations. Tapscott & Williams (2010) “…believe that the world has reached a critical turning point: reboot all the old models, approaches and structures or risk institutional paralysis or even collapse” (p. 10). The trends that are seen within these organizations and new technologies demonstrate changes in organizational paradigms.  

Google

Hoy (1990) states that “the climate of an organization may roughly be conceived as the “personality” of the organization (i.e., climate is to organization as personality is to individual)” (p.151). This struck me as a significant metaphor to describe the importance of climate in an organization. This metaphor can help explain why we have brand loyalty in the same way that we get along with individuals whose personalities we like. A personality determines whether we are attracted to an individual, and in the same regard the climate of an organization can make a positive impact on how a product or service is perceived by its consumers.

Google’s founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin developed five lessons of wisdom that represent Google’s culture.

1.       “Don’t sell your soul to the highest bidder” (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007, p.417)

2.       “Create a culture of risk taking” (all employees are allocated 20% of their time at Google to work on personal projects) (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007, p.417)

3.       “It’s all about the product”(Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007, p.417)

4.       “Don’t get greedy” (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007, p.417)

5.       “Keep your employees motivated and satisfied” (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007, p.417)

By implementing these lessons, the founders created an organization that was very different from the mechanistic model of organizational structure. These lessons in turn create a climate of transparency, collaboration, openness, sharing of data and intellectual property. These organizational traits are described in Macrowikinomics as organizations move away from hierarchical designs to more organic designs (Tapscott & Williams, 2010). In terms of organizational design, Google’s approach seems to be one of contingency design which allows for flexibility and change (McCaskey, 1974). I have related the idea of contingency design to that of individual learning styles of students. By using contingency design, an organization can create a unique structure to meet its needs in the same way that individual learning styles are unique ways of learning for each individual.       

IKEA

The February 26^th - March 4^th edition of the Economist stated that IKEA’s cooperate culture is based on thrift (The Economist Blood and Oil, 2011). This is interesting to note as organizational culture is defined as underlying values and assumptions (Dension, 1996). My first thought was: is thrift either an underlying value or assumption? I initially thought that thrift cannot be used to describe an organizational culture because Barney (1986) states that an organizations core values can improve employee morale and quality of work life. After re-reading Schein’s article I realized that thrift is certainly the basis for the organizations culture but not necessarily the component that affects employee morale or quality of work life. There must be other determinates and factors that influence morale and quality of work life; however, the idea of creating a culture based on thrift is at the core of IKEA’S underlying values and assumptions. IKEA has developed trendy, easy to assemble, easy to transport and most importantly inexpensive furniture. Their goal is to provide people with trendy furniture at a low cost (The Economist Blood and Oil, 2011). Based on the two quotations below, I have come to realize how organizational culture can develop based on the founder’s initial ideas and principles.

Gordon (1991) states that organizational culture can be seen as “…the assumptions and values pertinent to issues of managing and competing for organizational survival and prosperity (i.e., the values relevant to running the business)” (p. 397).

Schein (1983) states that:

Organizational culture, then, is the pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered, or developing in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration – a pattern of assumptions that has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (p. 14)

These statements show that thrift could be used to describe an organization's culture since it is one of the key factors in making IKEA profitable and highly successful. It is an underlying corporate value and in combination with other organizational culture determinates, it forms the overall organizational culture. The founder of IKEA, Ingvar Kamprad, based the idea of low cost trendy furniture on the lifestyle of a poor region in Sweden (The Economist Blood and Oil, 2011). He developed the company’s cultural paradigm and vision based on this principle and used it to develop a product. He proposed a solution to a problem: to create trendy and inexpensive furniture, we need to be thrifty (Schein, 1983). Also, thrift could be seen to describe a subculture within IKEA resounding within the design/production units of the company. We understand that organizations can have subcultures within their subunits; however, the overall culture is based in an underlying organizational assumption (Gordon, 1991). This analysis of IKEA’s corporate culture based in thrift shows that organizational culture is complex and intricate.  

3D Printing and Organizational Structure/Design

“Just as nobody could have predicted the impact of the steam engine in 1750-or the printing press in 1450, or the transistor in 1950-it is impossible to foresee the long-term impact of 3D printing” (The Economist Print me a Stradivarius, 2011, p.11). 3D printing is a form of manufacturing products through the process of additive manufacturing as opposed to subtractive manufacturing. 3D printers print 3D objects but instead of using ink they can use a variety of materials which deposit layer after layer on the printers surface to create the object. This technology creates a paradigm shift in the manufacturing process and the way industries are organized. “In the old paradigm, there were clear roles and responsibilities. In the new world of wikinomics, the lines between sectors and institutions are blurring” (Tapscott & Williams, 2010, p.19). Instead of outsourcing and paying other companies to create a product, organizations can design and print their own products dependent on their demands. This form of manufacturing also promotes collaboration through open source designs and encourages innovation (The Economist Print me a Stradivarius, 2011).

Tapscott & Williams state that:

Collaborative communities not only transcend the boundaries of time and space, they can reach across the usual disciplinary and organizational silos that inhibit cooperation, learning and progress. In doing all these things, mass collaboration provides an attractive alternative to the hierarchical, command-and-control management systems that are failing many of our key institutions. (p.19)

In terms of organizational structure, organizations and industries can become decentralized as companies will not need to rely on factories to produce their products. This form of manufacturing eliminates the need for job specialization as only a few individuals are needed to design and print the product. Individual companies that rely on factories to produce their products would need to re-design their organizational structure to incorporate the idea of self-designing and producing products. The impact of this technology could eliminate the need of factories and mass production entirely and thus could create great changes in the structure and direction of the economy.

Conclusion

As we move from the industrial age to the knowledge age, it is evident that developing an organization’s design and structure is a complex task (Hinrichs, 2009). New technologies such as 3D printing will change the manufacturing industry’s structure as well as change job specialization and centralized in businesses. Companies such as Google and IKEA have demonstrated that by creating unique organizational cultures, they can harness the power of innovation and become leading successful companies in their industries. By examining these companies and new technologies, we can see changes and shifts in organizational theory that reflect the trends of collaboration, innovation and decentralization (Tapscott & Williams, 2010).

References

Print me a Stradivarius. (2011, February 12^th – February 18^th). The Economist Print me a Stradivarius, 398(8720), 11. 

The secret of IKEA’s success. (2011, February 26^th – March 4^th). The Economist Blood and Oil, 398(8722), 67-68. 

Barney, J.B. (1986). Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage?. The Academy of Management Review, 11(3), 656-665.

Dension, D.R. (1996). What is the difference between organizational culture and organizational climate? A native’s point of view on a decade of paradigm wars. Academy of Management Review, 21(3), 619-654.

Gordon, G.G. (1991). Determinants of Organizational Culture. The Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 396-415.

Hellriegel, D., & Slocum, J.W. (2007). Organizational Behaviour Eleventh Edition. Ohio: Thomson South-Western.

Hinrichs, G. (2009). Organic Organizational Design. OD Practitioner, 41(4), 4-11.

Hoy, W.K. (1990). Organizational Climate and Culture: A Conceptual Analysis of the School Workplace. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 1(2), 149-168.

McCaskey, M. B. (1974). An Introduction to Organizational Design. California  Management Review,17(2), 13-21

Schein, E.H. (1983). The Role of the Founder in Creating Organizational Culture. Organizational Dynamics, 12(1), 13-28 .

Tapscott D., & Williams, A.D. (2010). Macrowikinomics Rebooting Business and the World. Toronto: Penguin Group.